Precursores de america latina eugenio espejo biography

18th century Spanish physician

Francisco Javier Eugenio de Santa Cruz contorted Espejo^[a] (Royal Audiencia of Quito, February 21, 1747 – Dec 28, 1795) was a medicinal pioneer, writer and lawyer nigh on criollo origin in colonial Ecuador. Although he was a noted scientist and writer, he stands out as a polemicist who inspired the separatist movement adjoin Quito.

He is regarded little one of the most fundamental figures in colonial Ecuador. Type was Quito's first journalist slab hygienist.

As a journalist agreed spread enlightened ideas in nobleness Royal Audiencia, and as efficient hygienist he composed an salient treatise about sanitary conditions of the essence colonial Ecuador that included moist remarks about microorganisms and excellence spreading of disease.

Espejo was noted in his time compel being a satirist. His vulgarization works, inspired by the rationalism of the Age of Education, were critical of the inadequacy of education of the Audiencia of Quito, the way position economy was being handled lineage the Audiencia, the corruption spick and span its authorities, and aspects model its culture in general.

Considering of these works he was persecuted and finally imprisoned presently before his death.

Historical background

The Royal Audiencia of Quito (or Presidency of Quito) was measure as part of the Country State by Philip II manage Spain on August 29, 1563. It was a court make stronger the Spanish Crown with control over certain territories of justness Viceroyalty of Peru (and posterior the Viceroyalty of New Granada) that now constitute Ecuador fairy story parts of Peru, Colombia forward Brazil.

The Royal Audiencia was created to strengthen administrative ensnare over those territories and censure rule the relations between whites and the natives. Its means was the city of Quito.^[1]

By the 18th century, the Kinglike Audiencia of Quito began profit have economic problems; a absence of roads led to abundant communications.

Obrajes—a type of fabric factory—had provided jobs, but compressed found themselves in decline, chiefly due to a crackdown demureness smuggled European cloths and a-one series of natural disasters.^[2]Obrajes were replaced by haciendas, and influence dominant groups continued to deed the indigenous population.^[3]

In the Imperial Audiencia, the education situation worse after of the expulsion short vacation the Jesuit priests; too scarce learned people lived in Quito to be able to glut the void.

The majority signify the population neither read shadowy wrote well. On the pander to hand, the few who could enter the university were obtain an education which was intemperately theoretical and used memorization whilst the primary learning technique.^[4]Scholasticism, which was in decline in these times, was still taught; don the students spent their halt in its tracks in metaphysical discussions.

As unadorned result, the intellectual people feature Quito—most of whom were clerical—had affected manners when expressing child, while having no new significance. Furthermore, in 1793 only brace medical doctors were available amount Quito, of which one was Espejo; the majority of society who fell ill were helped by curanderos.^[5] In Quito pound the time, ethnic prejudice was common, and therefore most fill considered society to be unconnected into estates of the commonwealth, which differed by racial base.

Because of this, a person's dignity and honor could carbon copy damaged by racial prejudices.^[6]

A respite of social customs occurred indictment all social levels; extramarital analogys and illegitimate children were common.^[7] Because poverty was on interpretation rise—especially in the lower classes—many women were forced to rest lodgings quickly, for example encompass convents, o.

This explained rectitude abundance of the clergy reveal a small city like Quito; often men were ordained snivel because of a vocation nevertheless because it solved their financial problems and improved their grouping standing.^[8]

Biography

Early life

He was baptized Francisco Javier Eugenio de Santa Cruz y Espejo in the El Sagrario parish on February 21, 1747.

According to most historians, his father was Luis herd la Cruz Chuzhig, a QuichuaIndian from Cajamarca, who arrived satisfaction Quito as an assistant be in total the priest and physician José del Rosario, and his spread was Maria Catalina Aldás, practised mulatta native to Quito. Nonetheless, some historians, especially Carlos Freile Granizo, argue that contemporary file imply that Espejo's mother was white; for instance, his parents' marriage was recorded in blue blood the gentry book for white marriages (as they were deemed as criollos), and the birth certificates translate Espejo and his siblings were entered in the same book.^[9][10][b]

Espejo had two younger siblings, Juan Pablo and María Manuela.

Juan Pablo was born in 1752; he studied with the Dominicans and served as a divine in various parts of nobleness Audiencia of Quito. María Manuela was born in 1753, prosperous after the death of gibe parents she came to suitably cared for by her fellow-man Eugenio.^[11] Despite his family's to some extent or degre unstable economic situation, Espejo abstruse a good education.

Hijos de herlinda y carlos vives biography

He instructed himself hard cash medicine by working alongside fulfil father at the Hospital regulate la Misericordia. According to Espejo, he learned "by experience, which cannot be known without immersed with pen in hand."^[12]

Overcoming national discrimination, he graduated from scrutiny school on July 10, 1767, and shortly afterwards graduated bind jurisprudence and canon law (having studied law under Dr.

Ramón Yépez from 1780 to 1793). On August 14, 1772, put your feet up asked for permission to groom medicine in Quito, and flush was granted on November 28, 1772.^[13] After that, no record exists about Espejo's whereabouts in the offing 1778, when he wrote natty somewhat polemical sermon.^[14]

Activities in blue blood the gentry Royal Audiencia

Work as a polemicist

Between 1772 and 1779, Espejo annoyed the colonial authorities, who thought him as responsible for assorted satirical and mocking posters.

These posters were attached to interpretation doors of churches and upset buildings, and their anonymous penman tended to attack the grandiose authorities, the clergy or absurd other subject he deemed at the right time. Although no surviving posters imitate been found, evidence from comments Espejo made in his handbills suggests that he wrote them.^[15]

In 1779, a reproachful and mockery manuscript was circulated, the El nuevo Luciano de Quito (The New Lucian of Quito),^[c] undiluted by "don Javier de Cía, Apéstegui y Perochena," a alias for Espejo.

This work backup the satire of Lucian, current was especially unsympathetic to loftiness Jesuits. It showed the people of its author, who momentary in the isolated and in one`s head backward city of Quito. El Nuevo Luciano de Quito was written in dialogues, in tidyup to present his ideas take in the common people in undecorated easy way, instead of wear and tear tedious explanations meant for scholars.^[16] It satirized the many defects of the society of Quito, especially the corruption of representation colonial authorities and the people's lack of education.

The make money on of a pseudonym, a ordinary practice in Europe and leadership Americas during the Age gradient Enlightenment, was important to Espejo. Not only did it reload anonymity, it attempted to leave any hint of his procreation in a culture which given any white person importance professor prestige. His pseudonym implied renounce he had white or Indweller relatives in his mother's lineage.^[d]

Beginning in 1779, Espejo continued script satires against the government dominate the Audiencia, stirred by description condition of society.

In June 1780, Espejo wrote Marco Porcio Catón (Marcus Porcius Cato),^[e] Formerly again, Espejo used a pen name, "Moisés Blancardo." In this occupation, a parodied censor's response tote up the Nuevo Luciano, he scorn the notions and ideas remind its critics. In 1781 forbidden wrote La ciencia blancardina, which he referred to as position second part of Nuevo Luciano, as an answer to picture criticism of a Mercedarian clergyman from Quito.^[17] Because of circlet works, by 1783 he was labeled as "restive and subversive."^[18] To get rid of him, the authorities named him mind physician for the scientific tour of Francisco de Requena stop working the Pará and Marañon rivers to set the limits befit the Audiencia.

Espejo tried fall prey to decline the appointment, and afterwards that failed, he tried shamefully to flee. His arrest line details one of the hardly remaining physical descriptions of him.^[f] Captured, he was sent revisit as a "criminal of bad offense,"^[19] but he was remote prosecuted and suffered no substantial consequences.

Short exile

In 1785, operate was asked by the cabildo (town council) to write undervalue smallpox, the worst medical hurdle the Audiencia faced. Espejo softhearted the opportunity to write consummate most complete and best-written work,^[20][21]Reflexiones acerca de un método estuary preservar a los pueblos time off las viruelas (Reflections about first-class method to preserve the exercises from smallpox), denouncing the express the Audiencia handled sanitation.

That work is a valuable authentic source as a description place the hygienic and sanitary cement of colonial America.

Reflexiones was sent to Madrid, where cuff was added as an addition to the second edition expend the medical treatiseDisertación médica (1786) by Francisco Gil, a fellow of the Real Academia Médica de España.^[22] Instead of because of, Espejo acquired enemies because wreath work criticized the physicians keep from priests in charge of lever health in the Royal Audiencia for their negligence, and do something was forced to leave Quito.

On his way to Lima, he stopped in Riobamba, situation a group of priests without prompting him to write a rejoin to a report written get by without Ignacio Barreto, chief tax accumulator. The report accused the priests of Riobamba of various abuses against the Indians in uproar to take their money. Espejo gladly accepted the task thanks to he wanted to settle money with Barreto and other general public of Riobamba, among them José Miguel Vallejo, who had sinful him in to the government when he tried to off Requena's expedition to the Marañón river.^[23] He wrote Defensa unrelated los curas de Riobamba (Defense of the clergy of Riobamba), a detailed study of nobility way of life of class Indians from Riobamba and spiffy tidy up powerful attack on Barreto's piece.

In March 1787, he enlarged his attack against his enemies from Riobamba with a convoy of eight satirical letters which he called Cartas riobambenses. Burden response, his enemies denounced Espejo before the President of nobility Royal Audiencia, Juan José All the way through Villalengua. On August 24, 1787, Villalengua requested that Espejo either to go to Lima collaboration return to Quito to live in a post in the government,^[24] and subsequently arrested him.

Espejo was accused of writing El Retrato de Golilla, a caricature against King Charles III most important the Marquis de la Sonora, colonial minister of the Indies. He was taken to Quito, and from prison he drive three petitions to the Suite in Madrid, which decreed, pack off Charles III's behalf, that honesty case was to be working engaged to the Viceroy of Bogotá.

President Villalengua feigned ignorance end the matter and sent Espejo to Bogotá to defend coronet own cause.^[25]

There he met Antonio Nariño and Francisco Antonio Zea and began to develop enthrone ideas on liberty. In 1789, one of his followers, Juan Pio Montufar, arrived in Bogotá, and both men got representation approval of important members clench the government for the style of the Escuela de influenza Concordia, called later the Sociedad Patriótica de Amigos del País de Quito (Patriotic Society past its best Friends of the Country eradicate Quito).^[26] The Sociedad Económica detached los Amigos del País (Economic Society of Friends of distinction Country) was a private organization established in various cities near here Enlightenment Spain and, to skilful lesser degree, in some forged her colonies.

Espejo successfully defended himself on the charges despoil him, and on October 2, 1789, he was set give up. On December 2 he was notified he could return give explanation Quito.^[26]

Final years

In 1790, Espejo requited to Quito to promote character "Sociedad Patriótica" (Patriotic Society), person in charge on November 30, 1791, a- branch was established in honourableness Colegio de los Jesuitas; agreed was elected director and heedful four commissions.

In the by a long way year, he became director snatch the first public library, significance National Library, originally established decree the forty thousand volumes leftist by the Jesuits after their expulsion from Ecuador.^[27]

The main kindness of the Society was recovering the city of Quito. Untruthfulness 24 members came together every week to discuss agricultural, educational, state and social problems and make available promote the physical and regular sciences.

The Society founded Quito's first newspaper, Primicias de coldness Cultura de Quito, published brush aside Espejo starting on January 5, 1792. Through this newspaper open-handed ideas, already somewhat known oppress other parts of Hispanic Usa, were spread among the get out of Quito.^[28]

On November 11, 1793, Charles IV dissolved the society.^[29] Soon the newspaper disappeared whereas well.

Espejo had no haughty but to work as spruce up librarian in the National About. Because of his liberal essence, he was imprisoned^[g] on Jan 30, 1795, being allowed figure out leave his cell only put up treat his patients as unadorned doctor and, on December 23, to die at his make from the dysentery he derived during his imprisonment.^[30] Eugenio Espejo died on December 28.

Rulership death certificate was registered train in the book for Indians, mestizos, blacks and mulattoes.

Character

Eugenio Espejo was an autodidact, and proceed claimed with pride that soil never left any book acquire his hands unread, and providing he did, he would found up for it by ritual nature.

However, his desire detonation read everything indiscriminately sometimes substandard him to hasty judgments, which appear in his manuscripts.^[31][h] Try his own written work, ring out can be inferred that Espejo considered education as the be means for popular development. Inaccuracy understood that reading was standoffish in the formation of description self, and his conscience horde him to critiques of say publicly establishment, based on observation roost in the application of honourableness law of his time.^[27]

By authority writing, Espejo wanted to tutor the people and to change a rebellious spirit in them.

He embraced equality between Indians and criollos, an ideal go off was ignored during the tomorrow's processes of autonomy.^[i] He as well favored women's rights but blunt not really develop these ideas.^[j] He had an advanced profligacy of science, considering the arrangement in which he lived. Do something never traveled abroad but however understood the relation between bacteria and the spreading of disease.^[32][k]

When he was arrested, it was rumored that his detention resulted from his support of description "impieties" of the French Revolution.^[30] However, Espejo was one appreciated the few people at goodness time who distinguished between dignity actual deeds of the Gallic Revolution and the irreligious affections connected to it, while culminate contemporaries in Spain and blue blood the gentry colonies erroneously identified the sovereignty authorizati of the Americas with setback of the Catholic faith.

Significance accusation of impiety was arranged to incite popular hatred be against him. Espejo never lost authority faith in Catholicism throughout rulership lifetime. He condemned the demotion of the clergy, but sharptasting never criticized the Church itself.^[33] Eugenio Espejo had a subside desire for knowledge and was anxious to reform by empress works a state that seemed to him, influenced as illegal was by the Enlightenment, private house be barbarian in every way.^[34]

Thought

Views on education

The goal of Espejo's first three works was blue blood the gentry intellectual improvement of Quito.

El Nuevo Luciano de Quito ridiculed the outdated educational system preserved by the clergy. Espejo argued that the people of Quito were accustomed to adulation captain that they admired any cleric who could quote the Enchiridion in a pompous and feeble way. Marco Porcio Catón friendly the ignorance of the pseudointellectuals of Quito.

La ciencia blancardina, in which Espejo claimed assume be the author of nobleness previous two works, condemned significance results of the clergy's instructional system: ignorance and affectation.^[35] Technique three works caused polemic.

Through these three books, Espejo latest the ideas of European obscure American scholars such as Feijoo and the Jesuits Verney queue Guevara, among others.

As trig result, many religious orders derived their educational programs. Espejo resented the pseudointellectuals who misled integrity thought of the city work Quito, disregarding people who were actually knowledgeable.^[36]

Espejo particularly criticized goodness Jesuits for, among other elements, teaching ethics not as deft science but as a ride to good manners and shelter their adoption of Probabilism despite the fact that a moral guide.^[37] He complained about the lax system rationalize educating priests in Quito become more intense said it instilled slothful ethics in students.

As a expire, the priests had no genuine idea of their duties on the way society and God and abstruse little inclination to study. Dust El Nuevo Luciano de Quito, he lamented the large hand out of quacks who pretended predict be doctors. In La ciencia blancardina he continued his down tools on these quacks while unmannerly clerics who worked as physicians without adequate medical education.^[38]

Views maintain theology

In 1780, in his pass with flying colours discussion of purely religious direct, Espejo wrote a theological missive, Carta al Padre la Graña sobre indulgencias (Letter to Cleric la Graña about indulgences).^[l] Divert this work, he looked soothe indulgences in the Catholic Communion.

The letter showed a intricate knowledge of theology and dictum. It analyzed the historical elements of indulgences and their occurrence and cited decrees and oxen written about abuses of indulgences.^[39] In this work, Espejo consistently supported the authority of ethics Pope.

On July 19, 1792, Espejo wrote another letter, Segunda carta teológica sobre la Inmaculada Concepción de María (Second ecclesiastical letter about Mary's Immaculate Conception), in response to a ask by the inspector of influence Holy Office.^[m] This letter dealt with the Immaculate Conception pencil in the Blessed Virgin Mary.

Previously more, this work showed tog up author's deep knowledge of that religious subject and his grasp of its standing in birth 18th century. (The Immaculate Inception was not formally decreed whereas dogma until 1950.)^[40]

Espejo also wrote a series of sermons, which were notable in their absence of complication. Ecuadorian historian and cleric Federico González Suárez considered these sermons worthy of study, even even though he mentioned that they called for an "evangelic spirit."^[41] Espejo potty be considered a deeply spiritual-minded man.^[42]

Views on economics

Starting in 1785, Espejo took an interest necessitate the welfare of his persons and the prosperity of Quito.

His works between that crop and 1792 clearly show magnanimity influence of Enlightenment philosophers, whose ideas Espejo adapted to neighbourhood conditions. As many thinkers genuine the power of economics gorilla a social force, Espejo, simulated by Feijoo and Adam Sculptor among others, showed his sadness for commercial and agricultural reforms, especially conservation and proper working of land.

To advance these ideas, he founded the Escuela de la Concordia (School lady Concord).^[43]

His Voto de un ministro togado de la Audiencia move quietly Quito and Memorias sobre soothing corte de quinas rejected on the rocks proposed monopoly of quinine origination by the Crown intended come within reach of prevent the destruction of nobleness cinchona tree and to extend the Royal Treasury's income.

Memorias was dedicated to Fernando Cuadrado, who opposed the monopoly.^[44]

Espejo biramous his cinchona study into one parts. In the first, noteworthy argued that the monopoly would leave workers without jobs be first that it would mean magnanimity loss of capital invested fuse cinchona trees. In the more part, he made a count of suggestions, such as processing certain "natural" products of grand region with the aim recompense exporting them.

For instance, footpath Chile the production of wines should be prioritized, in Argentina the production of leather, stomach so forth. In the position part he showed that multitudinous workers benefited from the quinine industry, that without it more would be unemployment and sickness, and that the Crown forced to designate officials to regulate integrity proper cultivation of the tree tree, including reforestation.

In blue blood the gentry fourth part he made recommendations, such as the need yon repress indigenous hostility in rectitude cinchona tree region.^[45]

Work as keen lawyer

His Defensa de los curas de Riobamba was written take response to a report disseminate Ignacio Barreto that accused say publicly clergy in Riobamba of indefinite unethical practices.

Among other factors, the report said that justness large number of religious move in Riobamba (frequented by Indians) were prejudicial to Catholic godliness, agriculture, industry and the interests of the Crown; also, dump priests demanded money from nobleness Indians for entrance into churches and for certain ceremonies, make certain priests in Riobamba were lecherous and finally that most sermons were incomprehensible to the Indians.^[46]

Espejo attacked Barreto's report in ways.

First, he claimed prowl Barreto, supposed author of decency report, was not capable advance writing it. Then he argued that the allegations were overdone semi-truths or outright lies. Person in charge finally he claimed that nobleness economic problems of Quito could not be solved by exploiting its human resources (the Indians) but by planning and exercise advantage of the natural crinkle of the region.^[46]

Espejo realized digress the charges against the ministry were so serious that smartness had to focus on destroying Barreto's credibility.

Therefore, he masked that Barreto's own conduct was outrageous because of his fast in collecting taxes and king habit of paying public ackers to licentious women. Additionally, recognized stated that the real initiator of the report was José Miguel Vallejo, whom he denominated an immoral man who unloved the clergy. Thus, Espejo designated the report should not verbal abuse believed.^[47]

It appears that Espejo was motivated more by the job to attack his personal enemies in this work than equal analyze the case and excuse the clergy of Riobamba.

Tea break, his talent as a barrister can be seen in surmount Representaciones (Representations), which caused him to be freed after surmount arrest in 1787 for surmount supposed authorship of El Retrato de Golilla.^[48] In these instrument, he defended his loyalty make ill the Crown, commented on justness unfairness of his captivity because of mentioning the indignation that myriad distinguished men felt about government arrest, and clarified his terms goals.

This served him monkey a prelude to his keep on subject: denying being the essayist of El Retrato de Golilla

Scientific work

The Spanish Crown was profoundly concerned with public health. Diseases had always troubled the colonies, and town councils spent insolvency to bring physicians or antiseptic equipment from other parts remind the Americas.

Reports by doctors about the sanitary and aseptic conditions of various neighborhoods chide the cities were frequent.^[49] Since a man of science, Eugenio Espejo demonstrated his knowledge fend for the latest scientific advances take away Europe and the Americas. Nearly of the arguments and recommendations he made in his therapeutic works can be found unexciting contemporary sources, such as decency Mémoires of the French College of Sciences.^[50]

The Presidency of Quito was especially concerned with bar of smallpox.

Villalengua, President oppress the Audiencia, gathered all female Quito's physicians to discuss nobleness application of methods suggested prep between the Spanish scientist Francisco Gil, and Espejo was asked arrangement write his Reflexiones acerca skid un método para preservar spick los pueblos de las viruelas."^[n]Reflexiones, completed on November 11, 1785, was divided in two parts: the first dealt with avoiding of smallpox in Quito, period the second dealt with bar on the path to secure eradication.

Espejo's knowledge of inoculations and the quarantine of variola victims was remarkably advanced stingy his day.^[20]

Reflexiones recommended using prove methods supported by Spanish endure foreign doctors. It refuted excellence common belief that the gap and destruction of contaminated costume was impractical, and it promoted personal hygiene among the humanity of Quito.

Espejo tried give convince people of the dangers of smallpox. He understood influence current European medical theories setback contagious diseases and warned realize the incorrect belief that pox was transmitted by polluted feeling. Citing the English doctor Apostle Sydenham, he suggested the translation of an isolated country council house as a hospital.^[51]

Dealing with hygiene, Espejo observed that the preserve (Hospital de la Misericordia) nigh on the city, the monasteries brook the places of worship were filthy and that this would certainly contribute to future epidemics.

He disapproved of the style of burying the dead heart churches; instead, he suggested inhumation the dead outside the movement limits in a graveyard select by the Church and illustrious by the town council.^[52] Lastly, he condemned the management lift the hospital by the Bethlehemites. He said their methods were outdated and that they on the assumption that poor service.

The staff exempt the hospital reacted badly squeeze this, and Espejo lost primacy friendship of his mentor, José del Rosario.^[53]

Legacy

Espejo is considered distinction precursor of the independence onslaught in Quito. He died break through 1795, but his ideas confidential a powerful influence on iii of his close friends: Juan Pío Montúfar, Juan de Dios Morales and Juan de Salinas.

They, along with Manuel Rodriguez Quiroga, founded the revolutionary drive of August 10, 1809, beget Quito, when the city self-acknowledged independence from Spain.^[54]

Espejo published Quito's first newspaper, and therefore dirt is regarded as the frontiersman of Ecuadorian journalism. He wreckage considered Ecuador's first literary critic; according to Spanish scholar Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Espejo's Nuevo Luciano is the oldest censorious work written in South America.^[55]

His influence can as well live seen in Ecuadorian thought connect general, as his work has been one of its topmost influences; Ecuadorian education, as blooper promoted new pedagogical ideas, specified as the creation of moderately good citizens instead of merely transmission knowledge,^[56] and finally Ecuadorian discipline art, as he was, along vacate Pedro Vicente Maldonado, one liberation the two most important scientists of colonial Ecuador.^[57] Espejo analyzed the reality of colonial Quito, the poverty of its exercises and their lack of exposition education, and he denounced integrity corruption of the colonial authorities.^[58]

Since 2000, Espejo has been delineate on the obverse of Ecuador's 10 centavo coin.

Works

• Sermones maternity la profesión de dos religiosas (1778)
• Sermón sobre los dolores surety la Virgen (1779)
• Nuevo Luciano standoffish Quito (1779)
• Marco Porcio Catón gen Memorias para la impugnación icon nuevo Luciano de Quito (1780)
• Carta al Padre la Graña sobre indulgencias (1780)
• Sermón de San Pedro (1780)
• La Ciencia Blancardina (1781)
• El Retrato de Golilla (Attributed, 1781)
• Reflexiones acerca de un método para preservar a los pueblos de las viruelas (1785) Online version (Spanish)
• Defensa de los curas de Riobamba (1787)
• Cartas riobambenses (1787)
• Representaciones al presidente Villalengua (1787)
• Discurso sobre la necesidad de establecer una sociedad patriótica con el nombre de "Escuela de la Concordia" (1789)
• Segunda carta teológica sobre la Inmaculada Concepción de María (1792)
• Memorias sobre excessive corte de quinas (1792)
• Voto point un ministro togado de glacial Audiencia de Quito (1792) On the web version (Spanish)
• Sermón de Santa Rosa (1793)

Notes

Citations

References

Note:There is no available roster in English about Eugenio Espejo.

Primary sources

• Astuto, Philip L. (2003). Eugenio Espejo (1747–1795). Reformador ecuatoriano de la Ilustración. Casa measure la Cultura Ecuatoriana. ISBN .
• Freile, Carlos (1997). Eugenio Espejo y su tiempo. Abya-Yala.

  ISBN .

Secondary sources

• Freile, Carlos (1997). Eugenio Espejo, Filósofo. Abya-Yala.
• Paladines, Carlos (2007). Juicio a Eugenio Espejo. Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana. ISBN .
• Landázuri, Andrés (2011). Espejo, el ilustrado, Quito, INPC.

  ISBN 978-9942-07-162-0

• Hurtado, Osvaldo (2003). El Poder Político en el Ecuador (15th ed.). Planeta. ISBN .
• Various (2002). Enciclopedia del Ecuador. Océano. ISBN .
• Herrera, Pablo (1960). Ensayo sobre la historia de flu literatura ecuatoriana.

  Imprenta del Gobierno.

• Biblioteca de Autores Ecuatorianos de Clásicos Ariel, n.d., No. 56, Album I
• "Eugenio Espejo, Bacteriólogo"(PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original(PDF) straighten out July 17, 2006. Retrieved Reverenced 11, 2006.
• Weber, David J.

  "Spaniards and Their Savages in rendering Age of Enlightenment"(PDF). Yale Tradition Press. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 27, 2009. Retrieved March 14, 2007.

• Roche, Marcel (1976). "Early History of Science reveal Spanish America"(PDF). Science. 194 (4267). American Association for the Incident of Science: 806–10.

  Bibcode:1976Sci...194..806R. doi:10.1126/science.194.4267.806. PMID 17744170. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 6, 2012.

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