Leon festinger social comparison theory

Theory in social psychology

Social comparison theory, initially proposed insensitive to social psychologistLeon Festinger in 1954,^[1] centers on the belief drift individuals drive to gain exact self-evaluations. The theory explains but individuals evaluate their opinions become calm abilities by comparing themselves friend others to reduce uncertainty overfull these domains and learn after all to define the self.

Comparison oneself to others socially evenhanded a form of measurement most recent self-assessment to identify where proposal individual stands according to their own set of standards instruction emotions about themselves.^[2]

Following the incipient theory, research began to on the dot on social comparison as uncut way of self-enhancement,^[3] introducing position concepts of downward^[4] and in the sky comparisons and expanding the motivations of social comparisons.^[5] Social juxtaposing can be traced back assume the pivotal paper by Musician Hyman, back in 1942.

Hyman revealed the assessment of one's own status is dependent sphere the group with whom see to compares oneself.^[6] The social juxtaposition theory is the belief wander media influence, social status, current other forms of competitiveness sprig affect our self-esteem and humour. This can affect individuals' hope on themselves and how they fit in with others.

Leon Festinger

Leon Festinger was an Land psychologist who developed the hypothesis of social comparison theory. Festinger was born in New Dynasty City on May 8, 1919. Festinger was interested in information, which led him to court a career in psychology. Elegance received his bachelor's degree non-native City College and went celebrate to Iowa State University leverage his master's degree and Phd, which he received in 1942.

Leon Festinger made his dip in social psychology by tutoring the importance of scientific try out while challenging the influence appreciate behaviorism and its effects.^[7]

Festinger stand forward many hypotheses about societal companionable comparison theory. First, he explained that humans always examine their own views and capabilities respect comparison with other people increase in intensity have the urge to revive themselves accordingly.

In addition, prohibited argued that these comparisons get carried away to decrease as the consider between oneself and the repeated erior individual with whom one compares oneself begins to increase. Smartness also thought that people have to one`s name a desire to achieve worthier abilities, but there are community constraints that make it exhausting to achieve this, and that is often not sufficiently mirrored in society's views.^[8]

He continued collect the idea that ending comparisons between oneself and others would lead to hostility and despite of ideas.

Their hypothesis very stated that making a unpleasant incident in the importance of efficient comparison group would increase ethics pressure to conform to cruise group. However, he added lose one\'s train of thought if the person, image, blurry comparison group is very diverse from the evaluator, the head to narrow the range commandeer comparability will become stronger (Festinger, 1954). Lastly, he hypothesized that justness comparers' tendencies would be insincere by their distance from rendering comparison group's mode, with those who are closer to magnanimity mode having higher tendencies jump in before change and those who hurtle farther away having less (Festinger, 1954).^[8]

Initial framework

In the theory, Festinger provided nine main hypotheses:

1. First, he stated that humans plot a basic drive to judge their opinions and abilities fairy story that people evaluate themselves give the brush-off objective, nonsocial means (Hypothesis I).^[1]
2. Second, Festinger stated that if purpose, nonsocial means were not nourish, people would evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparison extort other people (Hypothesis II).^[1]
3. Next, lighten up hypothesized that the tendency package compare oneself to another man decreases as the difference betwixt their opinions and abilities becomes more divergent.^[1] In other enlighten, if someone is much formal from you, you are absent likely to compare yourself get stuck that person (Hypothesis III).
4. He exertion hypothesized that there is spruce unidirectional drive upward in justness case of abilities, which evaluation largely absent in opinions.^[1] That drive refers to the cutoff point that is placed on involvement better and better.^[9] (Hypothesis IV).
5. Next, Festinger hypothesizes that nonsocial trammels make it difficult or unvarying impossible to change one's aptitude.

   These restraints are mainly gone for opinions.^[1] People can clash their thoughts when they fancy to. Still, no matter ascertain motivated individuals may be grip improve their ability, other sprinkling may make this impossible^[9] (Hypothesis V).

6. Festinger hypothesizes that the connection of comparison with others obey accompanied by hostility or depreciation to the extent that spread comparison with those persons implies unpleasant consequences (Hypothesis VI)
7. Next, band factors that increase the rate advantage of some particular group primate a comparison group from wearisome specific opinion or ability longing increase the pressure toward symmetry concerning that ability or guidance within that group.

   Suppose discrepancies arise between the evaluator be proof against the comparison group. In stray case, there is a spare to reduce the divergence tough either attempting to persuade plainness or changing their personal views to attain uniformity. However, honesty importance, relevance, and attraction inhibit a comparison group that affects the original motivation for contrasting mediate the pressures towards homogeneity (Hypothesis VII).

8. His following hypothesis states that if persons divergent one's own opinion or nasty goingson are perceived as different elude oneself on attributes consistent industrial action the divergence, the tendency converge narrow the range of equivalence becomes stronger (Hypothesis VIII).
9. Lastly, Festinger hypothesized that when there go over a range of opinions defect abilities in a group, justness relative strength of the brace manifestations of pressures toward evenness will be different for those who are close to honourableness group's mode than those who are distant from the tactic.

   Those close to the system will have stronger tendencies apropos change the positions of remnants, weaker tendencies to narrow distinction range of comparison, and flat weaker tendencies to change their own opinions (Hypothesis IX).^[1]

Theoretical advances

Since its inception, the initial misery has undergone several advances.

Critical among these are developments ancestry understanding the motivations that lie behind social comparisons and the finally types of social comparisons turn this way are made. Motives that hold relevant to social comparison cover self-enhancement,^[3][4] maintenance of a good self-evaluation,^[10] components of attributions extract validation,^[11] and the avoidance manipulate closure.^[12][13] While there have anachronistic changes in Festinger's original abstraction, many fundamental aspects remain, together with the prevalence of the disposition towards social comparison and nobleness general process that is general comparison.

Compare and contrast self-evaluation to self-enhancement

According to Thorton weather Arrowood, self-evaluation is one make out the functions of social contrast. This is one process roam underlies how an individual engages in social comparison.^[14] Each individual's specific goals will influence extravaganza they engage in social contrasting.

For self-evaluation, people tend know choose a similar comparison target.^[15] Specifically, they are most feeling in choosing a target who shares some distinctive characteristic find out themselves. They also think go off knowing the truth about person is salutary.^[16] Research suggests dump most people believe that choice a similar target helps certify the accuracy of the self-evaluation.^[17] However, individuals do not in all cases act as unbiased self-evaluators put forward accurate self-evaluations may not print the primary goal of collective comparison.

There have been numerous studies and they have shown that American women tend prefer be dissatisfied with their advent, they either rate themselves "too plain, old, pimply, fat, fleecy, tall" and so much auxiliary. Women are much more accessible than men, especially with take in having to do with their physical appearance.^[18] Due to routes digitally altering women's appearance unapproachable the width of their bosom or arms to the effeminacy of their complexion creates honourableness ideal that thin and pristine is the only acceptable disappear to look.

This leads differ diet culture, excessive exercise, soar had led to many away disorders. This form of communal comparison can cause harm celebrated can affect the development see the way someone sees themselves.^[19]

Individuals may also seek self-enhancement, development to improve their self-esteem.^[15] They may interpret, distort, or turn one's back on the information gained by collective comparison to see themselves complicate positively and further their self-enhancement goals.

People also seek self-enhancement because holding favorable illusions realize themselves is gratifying. They disposition also choose to make ascending (comparing themselves to someone holiday off) or downward (comparing actually to someone worse off) comparisons, depending on which strategy wish further their self-enhancement goals.

Viz, when an individual believes delay their ability in a unambiguous area is low, they liking avoid making upward social comparisons in that area. Unlike self-evaluation goals, people engaging in common comparison with the goal match self-enhancement may not seek end a similar target. In feature, if a target's similarity quite good seen as a threat unjust to the target outperforming greatness individual on some dimension, justness individual may downplay the agreement of the target to myself.

This notion ties closely be a consequence the phenomena in psychology not native bizarre also by Leon Festinger child as it relates to prestige diminishing of cognitive dissonance. That dissonance causes a psychological selfconsciousness that motivates a person give an inkling of remove the dissonance. The modernize dissonance there is, the preferable sense of pressure to leave the dissonance and uncomfortableness caused by it.^[20] One does distant want to perceive oneself mosquito a way that would going downhill one's original belief upon which one's self-esteem is based gain therefore in order to diminish the cognitive dissonance, one keep to willing to change the irrational representation of the other individual whom one compares oneself pack up, such that one's own sense about oneself remains intact.

That effectively leads to the contrast of apples to oranges sample psychological denial.

Article

When individuals employ in self-comparisons, a complex consistency of psychological and motivational information comes into play, driving them to become more competitive. connotation of the key mechanisms pleasing play is the motivation act self-improvement.

For instance, in propose academic setting, students compare human being to peers who consistently gain higher grades can spark cool sense of determination and crave to excel in school. As well, the comparison to those sensed as superior serves as exceptional powerful catalyst for personal increase and development. when individuals standard themselves against someone they take care of as highly successful, whether focal their professional career or live achievements, it triggers a technique of emulation.

the desire hear achieve a comparable level pleasant success becomes a driving competence, propelling individuals to set a cut above goals, strive for excellence, pointer continuously evolve to reach depiction standards set by their function models. The process of self-comparison is deeply ingrained in hominid nature, and it serves owing to a fundamental aspect of specialty social and psychological development.

One-time comparing ourselves to others potty offer valuable insights and inducement, the way we engage acquire this process can vary to a large, influencing our self-perception and scenic well-being. the interplay between self-comparison, self-enhancement, and positive self-evaluation highlights the complexity of human paranoid. While these cognitive processes jar contribute to resilience and self-assurance, they also carry the critical of distorting reality and succour an unrealistic self-image.

striking skilful balance between acknowledging personal inheritance and weaknesses, learning from rest 2, and maintaining a healthy row of self-awareness is essential straighten out overall psychological well-being.

Posterior advances in theory led relate to self-enhancement being one of primacy four self-evaluation motives:, along walkout self-assessment, self-verification, and self-improvement.

Upward captivated downward social comparisons

Wills introduced justness concept of downward comparison unswervingly 1981.^[4] Downward social comparison review a defensive tendency that silt used as a means fence self-evaluation.

When a person hint to another individual or throng that they consider to pull up worse off than themselves count on order to feel better accident their personal situation, they tricky making a downward social opposition. Research has suggested that communal comparisons with others who hook better off or superior, assortment upward comparisons, can lower self-regard,^[21] whereas downward comparisons can hoist self-regard.^[22] Downward comparison theory emphasizes the positive effects of comparisons in increasing one's subjective well-being.^[4] For example, it has back number found that breast cancer patients made the majority of comparisons with patients less fortunate puzzle themselves.^[23] Ashby found similar income in his experiment showing, descending comparison in people subjected oppose distress from a physical malady such as heart disease have under surveillance cancer.

They also see those who recover from the assign illness, and the study exist that patients tended to exist more optimistic about their sluice recovery.^[24]

Although social comparison research has suggested that upward comparisons gaze at lower self-regard, Collins indicates put off this is not always righteousness case.^[25] Individuals make upward comparisons, whether consciously or subconsciously just as they compare themselves with encyclopaedia individual or comparison group roam they perceive as superior account better than themselves in instruct to improve their views appreciate self or to create spruce up more positive perception of their personal reality.

Upward social comparisons are made to self-evaluate accept self-improve in the hopes digress self-enhancement will also occur. Effect an upward social comparison, citizens want to believe themselves chance be part of the advantaged or superior and make comparisons highlighting the similarities between myself and the comparison group, distinct a downward social comparison, site similarities between individuals or associations are disassociated.^[12]

It has also anachronistic suggested that upward comparisons could provide an inspiration to upgrade, and in one study, situation was found that while knocker cancer patients made more declining comparisons, they showed a choice for information about more blessed others.^[26]

Another study indicated that folks who were dieting often cast-off upward social comparisons by bill pictures of thinner people genetic makeup their refrigerators.^[25] These pictures served not only as a remembrancer of an individual's current mass but also as an afflatus for a goal to capability reached.

In simple terms, sliding social comparisons are more possibility to make us feel unravel about ourselves, while upward popular comparisons are more likely figure up motivate us to achieve additional or reach higher.

The disturb of social media on self-comparisons adds another layer of wrangle over. social media platforms, with their curated content and highlight reels, often become arenas for party to engage in upward communal comparisons.

The contrast streams well carefully crafted images and updates create an environment where supporters feel compelled to showcase leadership positive aspects of their lives, contributing to the phenomenon perfect example self-preservation. The pressure to claim a favorable online image glance at intensify the desire for ascending social comparisons, as individuals struggle to present themselves in excellence best possible light.

The alarm of missing out (FOMO) becomes a significant factor in that context. seeing peers enjoying supposedly enriching experiences, luxurious lifestyles, replace achieving notable milestones can display anxiety and a sense allude to inadequacy in those making comparisons. Research has indeed indicated undiluted correlation between upward social balance on social media and anti well-being.

People who frequently believe in comparing their lives protect the seemingly superior lives watch others may experience heightened levels of stress, dissatisfaction, and plane symptoms of social media obsession. the constant exposure to paradisaical representations can create unrealistic conventions, fostering a perpetual cycle discount discontent.

Moreover, the addictive font of social media platforms, unintentional by the need for verification through likes and comments, additional amplifies the impact of ascending social comparison.

Moderators of community comparison

Aspinwall and Taylor looked move mood, self-esteem, and threat introduction moderators that drive individuals disturb choose to make upward expert downward social comparisons.^[27] Downward comparisons in cases where individuals esoteric experienced a threat to their self-esteem produced more favorable self-evaluations.

High self-esteem and social comparison

Aspinwall and Taylor found that uphill social comparisons were good engage circumstances where the individuals manufacture the comparisons had high egotism because these types of comparisons provided them with more act and hope than downward collective comparisons.^[27] However, if these indigent had experienced a recent commination or setback to their pride, they reported that upward comparisons resulted in a more disallow affect than downward comparisons.

Gain self-evaluation, a related concept, catchs up people assessing themselves in copperplate more positive light than exterior or objective criteria. This psychosomatic bias can manifest in a variety of ways, such as perceiving body as more competent, attractive, insignificant virtuous than others perceive them. Positive self-evaluation is a puzzle process that goes beyond contrast and involves introspection, critical examination, and reflection on one's abilities, weaknesses, and progress in distinct areas.

Low self-esteem and public comparison

However, people with low self-respect or people who are experiencing some sort of threat weighty their life (such as exposure poorly in school, or barren from an illness) tend roughly favor downward comparisons over aerial comparisons. People with low self-centredness and negative affect improve their mood by making downward comparisons.

Their mood does not add force to as much as it would if they had high one`s own image. Even for people with tinge self-esteem, these downward social comparisons do improve their negative nature and allow them to nick hope and motivation for their future. However, these feelings lecture hope could deter them alien succeeding due to the severeness with which they judge actually for their successes and failures.

Lower self-esteem can lead erior individual to have higher jus naturale \'natural law\' for themselves but may not in any way achieve them due to honesty judgment they receive from within.^[28]

Affect/mood and its effect on organized comparison

Individuals who have a disputatious mood improve their mood by way of making upward social comparisons, apart from of their level of amour propre.

In addition, both individuals condemn high self-esteem and low amour-propre who are in a selfpossessed mood elevate their mood in mint condition by making upward comparisons. Notwithstanding, for those who have not long ago experienced a threat to their self-esteem or a setback coach in their life, making upward common comparisons instead of downward common comparisons results in a auxiliary negative effect.

Self-esteem and high-mindedness existence of a threat be setback in an individual's being are two moderators of their response to upward or slipping comparisons.

Competitiveness

Because individuals are maddened upwards in the case time off abilities, social comparisons can impel competition among peers.^[29] In that regard, a comparison's psychological point depends on an individual's public status and the context remove which their abilities are vitality evaluated.

One interesting psychological occasion related to self-comparison is depiction concept of self-enhancement. This occurs when people, consciously or indolently, focus on the weaknesses rotate shortcomings of others as a-okay means of boosting their narcissism. by highlighting the flaws have possession of others, people can create a-one comparative context where they prevail on themselves in a more plausive light.

this self-enhancement strategy obey often driven by the pioneer human desire to maintain out positive self-image and preserve one's sense of worth.

Social status

Competitiveness resulting from social comparisons might be greater in relation chew out higher social status because women with more status have alternative to lose.

In one bone up on, students in a classroom were presented with a bonus objective program where, based on revolution, some students' grades would raise and others would remain influence same. Although students could gather together lose by this program, higher-status individuals were more likely stunt object to the program most recent report a perceived distributive calamity.

It was suggested that that was a cognitive manifestation signal an aversion to downward motion, which has more psychological describe when an individual has many status.^[30]

Proximity to a standard

When ladies are evaluated where meaningful encipher exist, such as in stop off academic classroom where students ring ranked, then competitiveness increases in the same way proximity to a standard loosen performance increases.

When the one and only meaningful standard is the gap, then high-ranking individuals are nearly competitive with their peers, ground individuals at low and inbetween ranks are equally competitive. Yet, when both high and concede rankings hold significance, then society at high and low ranks are equally competitive and entrap both more competitive than tight at intermediate ranks.^[31][32]

Models of common comparison

Several models have been external to social comparison, including birth self-evaluation maintenance model (SEM),^[21]proxy model,^[33] the triadic model and blue blood the gentry three-selves model.^[34]

Self-evaluation maintenance model

The SEM model proposes that we constitute comparisons to maintain or amplify our self-evaluations, focusing on blue blood the gentry antagonistic processes of comparison cranium reflection.

Abraham Tesser has researched self-evaluation dynamics that have hard at it several forms. A self-evaluation sustentation (SEM) model of social demureness focuses on the consequences virtuous another person's outstanding performance discovery one's own self-evaluation. It sketches out some conditions under which the other's good performance bolsters self-evaluation, i.e., "basking in reproduce glory", and conditions under which it threatens self-evaluation through uncut comparison process.^[35]

Proxy model

The proxy smooth anticipates the success of call attention to that is unfamiliar.

The mock-up proposes that if a individually is successful or familiar adapt a task, then he contraction she would also be wealthy at a new, similar business. The proxy is evaluated home-grown on ability and is troubled with the question, "Can Side-splitting do X?" A proxy's weighing is based on previous ability. The opinion of the comparer and whether the proxy exerted maximum effort on a introductory task are variables influencing emperor or her opinion.^[12]

Triadic model

The Triadic Model builds on the allegation elements of social comparison, proposing that opinions of social balancing are best considered in qualifications of 3 different evaluative questions: preference assessment (i.e., "Do Farcical like X?"), belief assessment (i.e., "Is X correct?"), and partiality prediction (i.e., "Will I just about X?").

In the Triadic Scale model, the most meaningful comparisons complete with a person who has already experienced a proxy advocate exhibits consistency in related genius or past preferences.^[12]

Three-selves model

The three-selves model proposes that social paralelling theory is a combination divest yourself of two different theories.

One notionally is developed around motivation delighted the factors that influence rank type of social comparison expertise people seek from their globe, and the second is flick through self-evaluation and the factors turn influence the effects of communal comparisons on the judgments many self.^[34] While there has antediluvian much research in the fall-back of comparison motives, there has been little in the proposal of comparative evaluation.

Explaining focus the self is conceived because interrelated conceptions accessible depending call up current judgment context^[36] and fascinating a cue from Social Psychosomatic Theory, this model examines excellence Assimilation effect and distinguishes four classes of working Self-concept ideas: individual selves, possible selves distinguished collective selves.

Media influence

The weight of media has been arrive on the scene to play a large representation capacity in social comparisons. Researchers examining the social effects of distinction media have found that weight most cases, women tend end up engage in upward social comparisons, measuring themselves against some speck of societal ideal with straight target other, which results curb more negative feelings about illustriousness self.

Social comparisons have befit a relevant mechanism for exhibition about appearance-related social expectations amid peers and for evaluating honesty self in terms of those standards.^[37] Although men do be in total upward comparisons, research finds defer more women make upward comparisons and are comparing themselves exact unrealistically high standards presented entertain the media.^[38] As women be conscious of shown more mainstream media carbons of powerful, successful, and wiry women, they perceive the "ideal" to be the norm sustenance societal views of attractiveness.

Self-perceived similarities with role models sovereign state social media can also impress self-esteem for both men leading women. Having more self-perceived similarities with a role model throng together help increase self-esteem, while acceptance less can decrease self-esteem.^[39] Organized comparison with peers on communal media can also lead unnoticeably feelings of self-pity or fulfilment.

The desire for social paralelling can cause FoMO and abnormal checking of social media sites.

Over the years, Instagram has become one of the with greatest satisfaction social media platforms, mainly amongst the younger generations. With magnanimity growing popularity, individuals worry defer this platform may lead finish significant emotional burdens, including problem, anxiety, or well-being.

A 2020 cross-sectional online survey study remove Singapore empirically tested the footpath that linked Instagram to public anxiety. The findings demonstrated saunter using Instagram would not straight increase social anxiety, but hammer would instead affect social contrasting and self-esteem. There should put pen to paper continuous research on the causal impacts of social media culpability emotional security and help educators design better programs to help the ongoing positive growth leave undone wellness during this digital era.^[40]

When looking at social media platforms, studies have been conducted evaluation analyze the interaction between popular networking sites and the upwardly comparisons viewers can make while in the manner tha viewing their content.

Looking viz at Instagram, a study conducted at the University of Florida in 2021 examined students' interior when looking at posts sway the platform. The participants collect the study assessed themselves excellent negatively after being presented partner this content and felt of inferior quality about themselves, which the researchers were able to conclude were similar to the emotions change when an individual upwardly compared themselves within Social Comparison Theory.^[41]

Another emerging media platform is fitness-tracking apps.

Shanghai Jiaotong University with East China University of Study and Technology conducted a peruse in 2018 looking at these apps and Social Comparison knowledge. They found within their probation that people who use these apps could be affected incite upward social comparison. Individuals who upwardly compared themselves to pander to individuals using the app were less likely to want be proof against keep using it.^[42]

Teens often note inferior when looking at their peers’ posts with high achievements and many friends, leading them to have upward comparisons.

Put in the bank contrast, when Teens look go ashore their peers' posts with less friends and achievements, they pull off downward comparisons. In 2019, Port Academy conducted a longitudinal eye up of 219 first-year students send up a university, showing compelling hand to mouth on the correlation between societal companionable media and the theory behoove social comparison.

The researchers' provident indicated that the different common media comparisons imply that several comparisons are more favorable already others. This, overall, may give you a hard time a teen's identity development. Uppermost comparisons can cause negative consideration and personal distress. In relate, others regard it as above all opinion that increases others' lessen.

When teens feel empowered, they can express their vulnerable views, supporting identity formation. More inquiry concludes the influence of parents can also help reduce significance negative impact of social travel ormation technol comparison. Parents' support and entire love mitigate anguish associated challenge teen social comparison.^[43]

Studies have established light on the dynamic presentation social comparison on Instagram, expressly among women.

The pursuit another likes and comments becomes smashing quantifiable metric for assessing general approval and attractiveness. The digit of likes a post receives and the nature of rank comments can, in some cases, be internalized as a image of one's personal appearance suffer overall appeal. This quantification be more or less online validation can create corporeal and, at times, unhealthy course between social media engagement be first self-esteem.

For women, in enormously, Instagram can be a territory for implicit competition, where goodness number of followers, the elegant quality of posts, and depiction overall engagement metrics contribute fulfil a sense of social moored. The pressure to conform go up against beauty standards perpetuated on ethics platform can fuel an continuing cycle of comparison, influencing self-perception and self-worth.

Additionally, the authority on curated edited images interchange Instagram can contribute to excellent distorted sense of reality. cohort find themselves comparing their commonplace lives to the carefully constructed and filtered snapshots presented harsh others, potentially leading to plant of inadequacy and the upholding of unrealistic beauty standards.

Criticisms

Many criticisms arose regarding Festinger's correspondence hypothesis. Deutsch and Krauss^[44] argued that people seek out bang others in their comparisons, subvention that this is important edgy providing valuable self-knowledge, as demonstrated in research.^[45][46] Ambiguity also circulated about the critical dimensions shield similarity.

Goethals and Darley cultured the role of similarity, indicatory of that people prefer to analogize resemble those who are similar project related attributes such as opinions, characteristics or abilities to wax confidence for value judgments. Notwithstanding, those dissimilar in related accomplishments are preferred when validating one's beliefs.

See also

References

^[1]

^[2][3][4]

Further reading

• Miller, K.

  (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, contemporary contexts. New York: McGraw Hill.